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Kyrgystan Country Guide

Languages of Kyrgystan

Official — Kyrgyz. In common use — Russian, (especially in the capital and Northern region)

ABOUT KYRGYZSTAN KYRGYZSTAN AND THE SILK ROAD

What was the «Silk Road» and what does it have to do with Kyrgyzstan?
There was no single Silk Road — rather, there were a number of different routes used by ancient traders. Some of the main ones certainly ran through Kyrgyzstan, both in the North (coming over the mountains from China and down from what is now Kazakhstan past lake Issyk Kul then down the Chui river), but another variant ran over the Torugart Pass (Tuergate, Torugart) in Central Kyrgyzstan then through Naryn and down the Chui river, while a third (southern) variant came over the Irkeshtam Pass in the South (then through the city of Osh, which celebrates its 3000th, year in the year 2000). A spur of the southern route ran through the middle of the country to joint with the middle route over Torugart Pass. Once in Kyrgyzstan, one route ran down the Chui river and then over the present day pass to Kazakhstan (which is today called «Zhibek Zholu» or Silk Road) and in the South ran from Osh through Uzbekistan and then westwards. No country in central Asia other perhaps than China has a better claim to represent the best of the Silk Routes.

These ancient trading routes which operated 2000 and more years ago, reaching peak use in the second century AD, are called ««Silk» because they transported generally high value non-bulky commodities such as spices, jewellery, and silk, from East (from China) to West (to Rome) and back again. The trade was actively promoted by many of the intermediate kingdoms, such as the Parthians and Persian, which benefitted from tolls and in return helped to maintain and protect the routes. Cities such as Ectabana, Merv, Palmyra, Petra, and Alexandria flourished on the trade. As one writer says «in the end, the horse and the Bactrian camel were the means by which the central Asian steppes were opened up as a great commercial route». We should not, however, imagine a trader starting in Eastern China and making his way to Rome! Perhaps a few did so and of course we know that a few (such as Marco Polo, rather late on in the show) went all the way in the opposite direction from Italy to China. But most traders would travel along a short part of the route, handing on their goods to the next trader in the next large town, and by such means goods swapped hands and increased in price many times before arriving at their ultimate destination.

Some of the Silk Routes through China skirted the Taklamaklan desert, one of these running to the north and one to the south of this desert. There was also a more northern route towards the Altai mountains. The different routes were used depending partly on climate and also partly on incursions from local tribes. Certainly one of the southern Taklamakan routes went through Yokand (Yarkand, Yarche, Schache) and then through Kashgar (Kashi or Kashi Shi) and these can easily be visited today from Kyrgyzstan. Some other routes also probably went down what is now the Karakoram Highway past lake Karakul and through Taskhkurgan and then either through the huge and dramatic cleft in the mountain range where the Mintaka river links China and Afghanistan or possibly over the 4730 meter Khunjerab Pass into the Indian subcontinent (into what is today Pakistan? s Northern Territory). Tashkurgan is thought by many to be the «Stone Tower» which Pliny wrote about and today there is visible there a large ruined site (the «Stone City») which dominates the lower valley.

The heyday of the Silk Routes was in the period 1800 years ago, and its use for the transport of rare items between China and the West tended to decline when sea routes later opened up or became more popular (having earlier been bedevilled by piracy). Nevertheless, although the whole Silk Routes from China to Rome may not have been used continuously as a transcontinental route, and parts of it fell from time to time into disuse, other parts remained open continuously, even if used for more local trading. The main threat to the routes were the northern barbarians (Huns, Hsiung-nu and others) who put pressure both on the Chinese — especially in the Tarim basin area where to the south the warlike Tibetans were also a threat — and later, even on Rome itself. But particularly with more bulky cargoes, the sea routes (for example, through the Red Sea and then the Mediterranean, or through the Persian Gulf, and then overland through Persia/Arabia) proved to be a more economical and reliable route — after the suppression of piracy — and this led to a decline in use of the land routes. But because there is not one road but many routes, and trading never ceased along at least parts of them, it is impossible to say that the Silk Road ever ceased to be used.

As for the Kyrgyz (Kirghiz, Khyrghyz) themselves, they perhaps mainly originated from the northern Altai Mountains. However, the word «Kyrgyz» (which means something like «forty tribes») is one of the oldest in central Asia, being recorded in written documents as early as the third millennium BC. A Kyrgyz Khanate stretched from the Yenisei river to the eastern Tien Shan in the first millennium AD. By the 6th century, a unification of Turkic tribes gave rise to the Western Turkic Khanate (there was later an Eastern version) the capital of which was Suyab situated in the Chui valley (Bishkek lies in this valley). In the 10th-12th centuries, the Kara-Khanid Khanate (or Kara-Khitai Empire — «Kitai» in Russian still means «Chinese») developed — and one of its main towns was Balasagun, the ruins of which with its impressive 11th. century «Burana Tower», may still be seen today only an hour? s drive from Bishkek (a field of stone petroglyphs such as those by the hotel doors — called «bal-bals» can also be seen there.) Balasagun, who together with the other Kyrgyz philosopher Muhammad Kashgar is regarded as one of the greatest oriental thinkers of this period.

From the Altai mountains, the Kyrgyz displaced the Uighurs, who themselves moved south to the steppes of western China (later Turkestan) and in turn displaced the local Turkish peoples. In the 13th century, the Kyrgyz were in turn conquered and the Kara-Khanid Khanate was destroyed by the Mongol empire, while in China the Mongols used the more settled Uighurs as their allies to form the bureaucratic and administrative class needed to administer the Chinese territories conquered by Genghis Khan (a fact which led to Chinese resentment of the Uighurs which persists to this day). After the death of the Great Khan Mongke, the Mongol Empire split into different Khanates, and modern day Kyrgyzia became part of the Chagatai Khanate. Later, this became the Kokand Khanate, dominated by Uzbeks from the south, but following an uprising in 1873—1874, the Kyrgyz were finally brought into the sway of the Russian Empire following the expansion of the latter in the later half of the 19th. century. At the site of what is now Bishkek (in Soviet times Frunze, after the famous general) the Kokand Khanate built a fortress in 1825, but this is known to have been built on the site of an older Kyrgyz fort, called Pishpek. Probably Pishpek was a modest trading post at the time. («Pishpek» has the meaning of a large stirring spoon or plunger used in making cream or cheese). The city was captured by a joint Russian-Kyrgyz force in 1862 and was essentially demolished, with a new fortification being planned by Russian military engineers. In 1878 the city of Pishpek was designated as a district centre, and in 1924 it became the administrative and political centre of the Kyrgyz Autonomous Region, being renamed Frunze in 1926 after the famous local general whose reward for great competence was to be assassinated by Stalin (or rather, by his doctors) — and the city was then renamed as Bishkek after independence, in 1991. (There is a museum to General Frunze in central Bishkek inside, which is his original house, preserved as a kind of shrine).

Bishkek has a population of about 1,000,000. The city is said to be one of the greenest in central Asia with the highest number of trees per head of population. It lies in the Chui river valley, only 30 km from the border with Kazakhstan (which is marked by the river) and one hour? s drive or less from the impressive 14,500 feet peaks of the Kyrgyz Krebet. Its airport is Manas, about 30 minutes way by car, and it is only 3 hours or so by car from Alma Aty, the former capital of Kazakhstan (the capital was fairly recently switched to a more northern city called Astana).

The present day borders of Kyrgyzia (Kyrgyzstan, Khyrghyzstan, the Kyrgyz Republic) were drawn up by the new Russian conquerors and rewritten in part under the Soviet Union (for example, part of the Ferghana valley near Osh was ceded by Stalin to the Uzbeks). Even today there remain some border disputes, particularly in the south where enclaves of Uzbek land are totally encompassed within the borders of Kyrgyzstan. Talks are going on to resolve these.

The Kyrgyz people themselves, formerly nomadic, were — like others in central Asia — subject to a brutal campaign of settlement and collectivization under the Soviet Union in its formative period, which left a large percentage of the population dead from starvation and disease. However, it cannot be denied that in later years the Russian presence led to many benefits in the forms of heavy subsidies enabling the relative modernisation of the country and its infrastructure. The country was one of the most favoured holiday destinations for Soviet citizens, who flocked especially to the many resorts on Lake Issyk-Kul. Literacy rates are high though with the withdrawal of subsidies in the post-Soviet period, the infrastructure (roads, hotels, electricity supply, telephone system, etc.) is at the end of the 20th, century crumbling. Stalin moved sizable populations of other minorities here: these include Koreans, Germans and some Chinese (though there was already a Chinese population called Dunghans or Dongans in residence. Many Germans have now emigrated to Germany leaving some smaller towns practically empty. About 150,000 Russians have emigrated since 1991. Kyrgyzstan unfortunately has the reputation of being perhaps the most corrupt country in the former Soviet Union and this perhaps reflects a long disdain of official Soviet practices and a tradition of paying lip service to the rules while disobeying them in practice. Somebody once said of Russia that the severity of the legislation was matched only by the extent to which it was not observed: Kyrgyzia today has many of the most forward looking laws in the CIS but unfortunately, because the courts are corrupt and not independent, the laws do not work very well, if at all. This is unlikely to affect the traveller apart from the occasional meeting with a (usually friendly) policeman who is looking for a small bribe to mind his own business. But it has a definite effect on business practices. Many foreigners contrast the relative friendliness with the extent of bribery and refer to it as «corruption with a smiling face» which is perhaps close to the truth.

Most of the population now speak Russian at least as a second language, and many as their first, though there is growing reluctance to use Russian especially in more rural areas. In the year 2000 Russian was given the status of an «official» language in order to appease ethnic Russians and to try to stem the continuing exodus of Russians to the Russian Federation. The native Kyrgyz language is classified as a Turkic language, a fact which follows from the Turkic expansions — particularly between the 5th, and 8th. — centuries when two great Turkic Empires (the western and the eastern) occupied much of central Asia and large parts of modern day China including the Altai mountains where the Kyrygyz partly originated. Modern day Kyrgyz is closely related to Uighur (though the latter uses an Arabic script) and to Kazakh and Turkmen and the different peoples can speak to one another without much difficulty. Uzbek is slightly more remote from the Kyrgyz but still very comprehensible, while the language, which is closest to modern day Turkish and furthest from Kyrgyz, is that of Azerbaijan, though with some difficulties Kyrgyz and Azeris can communicate in a general way using their own languages. Turkish, however, is now quite remote from spoken Kyrgyz, though 50% or so of words are recognisably of common origin. In the south are some Tadjiks and their language is not related to Turkish at all but is Persian in origin.

Ethnically, the Kyrgyz tend to resemble somewhat the Mongols or Chinese, while the Uzbeks and the Uighurs (the latter live mainly in China) resemble more the people of Turkey. But there has, of course, been a huge mixing of populations and you will notice a great difference in facial appearances. Most of the population is nominally Moslem, but the state is generally secular in character since the Soviets discouraged religious belief and the building of mosques and in any case the Kyrgyz were never strongly religious. The present government is determined to discourage religious fundamentalism and the country has escaped the worst of the religious ferment which has troubled Afghanistan and (in part) Tadjikistan and which still to some extent causes concern in Uzbekistan. Nevertheless, about 1500 Kyrgyz per year attend the Haj in Saudi Arabia. Further, Iran, Saudi Arabia and others are encouraging the building of mosques and, some allege, are fomenting religious discord and groups, which are hostile to the secular government. Although the majority of people now live in towns or cities, many yurts (felt tents used widely in the region, including Mongolia) are still to be seen dotting the countryside and especially the higher and more remote regions of the country. Around much-visited spots along the road, they often double as restaurants.

Kyrgyzstan is in the very middle of the Eurasian continent, bordering China (east), Kazakhstan (north and west), Uzbekistan (south west), and Tadjikistan (south west and south). Its territory is 198.5 thousand square km, about the area of Portugal, Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands put together, or a little less than the UK. The northernmost part is at the same latitude as Rome, but because it is landlocked its winters are much colder (and the height above sea level makes many parts even colder — our guest house in Naryn has -35 degrees C fairly often in winter) and its summers are both drier and hotter (45 degrees C is not unusual and 50 degrees C was recorded in 1998 near Bishkek). 93% of the surface area is over 1500 meters in height and 41% is over 3000 meters. The greatest natural feature is the Tien-Shan mountains (in Kyrgyz «Tenir-Too») running northeast to southwest. The second most famous feature is Lake Issyk-Kul («warm lake»), which is 1,600 meters above sea level and 668 meters deep in places. This lake contains approximately 1,738 cubic kilometers of water and has no rivers flowing out of it (it is, therefore, slightly salty and because of this and perhaps deep volcanic activity it never freezes. This gives it its name, though it certainly is not warm.) The lake lies in a basin surrounded by high mountains. It is not far by road (about 3 hours) from the second largest lake in Kyrgyzstan, which lies at 3000 meters — lake Son Kul — a remote but beautiful wildlife sanctuary. To the north west of the great lake, directly over the mountains, is Alma Aty and this city is to be connected to the lake by a high-altitude road which may open in 2000 and which will greatly shorten the travel time (otherwise, 5—6 hours). Apart from the travel time the road gives spectacular views over the lake and runs through dramatic and beautiful mountain scenery. The river Naryn runs from north east to south west joining with the Kara-Darya to form a river which even in antiquity was called the Syr-Darya and which runs from Kyrgyzstan out into the Ferghana (Fergana) valley and on into the Aral Sea (though it is mainly diverted or exhausted before then). This is the second largest river in central Asia after the Amu-Darya. It is possible to visit its source, above the city of Naryn.

The largest cities include:
Bishkek (described above),
Osh — in the south, lying on the border with Uzbekistan,
Karakol — at the top (north east) of lake Issyk Kul
Balikchi (or Rubachi) — at the bottom (south west) of Lake Issyk Kul
Djalalabad — in the south, an hour from Osh
Naryn — near the Chinese border on the road to the Torugart pass
Kyrgyzstan is divided into seven administrative regions or «oblasts» which are:
Chui (location of Bishkek, Burana Tower, road to Kazakhstan, to lake Issyk Kul). Most Russians live here or in the Issyk Kul oblast.
Issyk Kul (location of Karakol, Balykchi, Cholpon Ata resort site, Jety Orguz valley)
Naryn (source of the river of the same name, on the road to China, beautiful mountain valleys and scenery, walking, horse-trekking, etc., and in winter one of the coldest places in the country because of the altitude.)
Talas (in the west near Kazakhstan, mountainous and the site of legendary victories by the hero «Manas»)
Djalalabad (Jalal-Abad) (site of the city of the same name and the famous walnut forests at Arslanbob)
Osh (the second most populous region, its capital city also called Osh being claimed to be 3000 years old in the year 2000, containing Uzgen which boasts a thousand year old tower, and the region where the Parma highway begins, crossing the Alai-Alai range with one high-mountain pass to Tadjikistan and another to China)
Batken — established in 1999.

KYRGYZSTAN IN FIGURES

Longitude
Bishkek — 74° East Similar to New Delhi

Latitude
Bishkek — 42° North Similar to Istanbul, Madrid, New York

Elevation
Highest — 7437 m — Peak Pobeda

Lowest — 401 m — The Laikal district in the Ferghana Valley

Average — 2750 m

Bishkek — 750 m

93% of Kyrgyzstan higher than 1500 m above sea level, and 41% above 3000m.

Area
198,500 sq. km (76641 sq. miles)

Similar to England and roughly equal to the combined areas of Portugal, Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands.

925 km East —West: 453 km North —South

The total length of Kyrgyzstan"s borders is 4508 km.

Neighbouring Countries
China, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tadjikistan

Population
4.77 million

density — 24 per sq. km 38% — urban, 62% — rural

51% — female, 49% — male

Approximately one sixth of the population lives in Bishkek.

The Kyrgyz make up just over 50% of the population — of the over 70 other nationalities the major ones are:

Russians (17%), Uzbeks (13%), Ukranians, Germans and Tartars.

40% of the population is under 14 years old and 8% of the population is over 60 years old

Shortly after Independence there was large —scale emigration of ethic Russians and Germans in response to the decline of industrial job opportunities and growing Kyrgyz nationalism.

Religion
Muslim (Sunni), and Russian Orthodox

Languages
Official — Kyrgyz. In common use — Russian, (especially in the capital and Northern region)

Life Expectancy
In 1995: Male: 63.9 — Female: 72.6

The Kyrgyz people worldwide
In the summer of 1992 the first Kyrgyz Kurultai, or gathering, took place in Bishkek, and representatives of Kyrgyz communities from various parts of the world (including Australia Saudi Arabia, Canada, Germany, Turkey, China, Afghanistan and the US) attended. More than 300,000 Kyrgyz live in other parts of the former Soviet Union, and 150,000 in China, Afghanistan and Pakistan. Smaller communities can be found in Mongolia, India, Turkey and Jordan. In China the Kyrgyz even have their own Kyzyl —Su autonomous district.

There is a tradition amongst some Kyrgyz that says that long ago some of their ancestors crossed the Bering Land Bridge to become the forefathers of today"s Native Americans.

Mountains
About 80% of the land is mountainous, including the Central Tian Shan, the Kyrgyz Mountains, and the Alai Range of the Parmirs.

The name Tian Shan is the Chinese name. The Kyrgyz name for these mountains is Tenir —Too, (or "Celestial Mountains")

Rivers
There are more than 40,000 rivers and streams in Kyrgyzstan, with a combined length of roughly 150,000 km and draining some 47 cubic km of water a year.

The Chui in the North which dissipates into the deserts of Kazakhstan;

The Naryn — Kyrgyzstans most important river, flows into the Ferghana valley where it converges with the other major river of the republic, the Kara —Darya. Together they flow as the Syr Darya (the second longest river in Central Asia, its name in ancient times was the Jaxartes) and drain about half the country and flow to the small Aral Sea (which separated from the large Aral Sea in 1988). Used for hydroelectric power — there are 7 power stations on the river;

Lakes
There are 1923 lakes of different sizes in the republic.

Issyk Kul — Fourth deepest lake in the world (almost 700 m); Second largest mountain lake in the world; at 1600 m above sea level. The movement of Tectonic plates formed other large lakes, such as Son —Kul and Chatyrkul. Sary —Chelek is a very famous beautiful lake. Lake Maerzbacher appears during the summer, and "icebergs" up to 15 metres high float from side to side, then it "disappears".

Cultivated land
Only 7% of the land area is arable

Irrigation
More than half the land —cultivated area is irrigated.

Glaciers
Glaciers, (almost 8000 of them), and permanent snow cover about 30% of the total land area. The most famous is the Inylchek Glacier. The contain some 580 billion cubic metres of water — enough to cover the whole of Kyrgyzstan to a depth of 3m.

Forests
Forests cover 3.5% of the total land area.

Mineral Resources
Minerals found in Kyrgyzstan include: antimony, coal, gold, iron, lead, mercury, natural gas, petroleum, sulphur, tin, tungsten, uranium and zinc.

Also, there are deposits of: clay, granite, gypsum, limestone, marble and sandy gravel deposits.

Wildlife
With over 80 species of mammals, 330 species of birds, 50 species of fish and about 30 of reptiles and amphibians, Kyrgyzstan has a rich and diverse wildlife.

Examples include: badgers, bears, camels, eagles, foxes, gophers, gulls, hawks, horses, lynxes, marmots, martens, mountain goats, porcupines, raven, sheep, snow leopards, Turkmen rats, wolves, woodpeckers, yak

Hunting and hawking take place in the mountain regions (2000 —3000m asl).

CULTURE SHOCK - SOME “BITS AND PIECES”

Belongings : The Kyrgyz were originally nomads and this seems to have inculcated into their culture a totally different sense of privacy and belongings than encountered in the West, a fact compounded by rampant poverty – especially in the rural regions.. As always in such circumstances, exposimg your wealth is asking for trouble. Don’t show large sums of money – keep you dollars hidden, and if possible have only local currency in small denominations. You should be careful with valuable possessions.

Clothing : Even if the people of Kyrgyzstan (especially in the North) are far more relaxed about religion than muslims elsewhere – you should still be aware of local sensibilities. In the larger towns, especially Bishkek, and the Northern regions, the people are much more weternised and more used to foreigners in their midst. Fashions such as shorts, short skirts, halter tops and bare chests are not likely to encounter outright opposition – but it is probably wise to dress cautiously so as to avoid offending people. Incidentally, in many regions if can be quite cool (if not cold) especially at night – so remember to bring something warm, such as a sweater.

Gestures :

To attract attention raise your hand and say “kechiresiz” – or more simply : “oy”

To apologise the Kyrgyz place their right hand, palm flat against the chest – sometimes they use both hands. This gesture is also sometimes used when serving tea or when welcoming someone.

You beckon someone the whole hand is used – not just a single finger … the hand is held palm up and the fingers are repeated curled and unfurled.

To pinch your cheek, or rub your cheek in a downward motion, is used to signify that someone has done something bad, or shameful.

Greetings:

Shaking hands – men shake hands – but usually women do not. (A recent trend is for business women to shake hands). Men often shake with both hands to show respect – the left hand patting the top of the other persons hand – although there are variations … one man may shake with the right hand whilst tapping the other person’s shoulder with his left hand and, in the South, men might shake with the right hand holding his left to his breast. Don’t shake hands across a thresh-hold.

When women meet they usually bow slightly – even from afar. They sometimes greet each other by touching right cheeks without actually kissing – although an older woman may place a kiss on the cheek of a younger woman. It is considered polite for younger and foreign women to kiss elderly women on the cheek.

Meals :

Blowing your nose at the table : should be avoided – if you feel the need to sneeze or blow you your nose, turn away from the table or - better still – make an excuse and leave the table.

Eating with hands : several dishes, such as Beshbarmak and manti, are eaten with the hands – remember to use your right hand – never touch food with your left hand.

Omin : In some homes a meal may begin with a prayer – but every Kyrgyz meal ends with “Omin” – the Islamic equivalent of “amen”. The hands are brought up to the face and the palms brought down in front ot it as if washing the face – saying the word “omin”.

Seating plans : in a large gathering the most respected or eldest male sits at the head of the table and then others are placed in descending order of rank. Women tend to sit together at the far side of the table. In Southern Kyrgyzstan, men and women may eat in separate rooms.

Toasts : at meals alcohol will often be served - if not pressed on you. You will be expected to give a toast and drinking to the health of your host and his family will be greatly appreciated. When drinking vodka - watch your hosts - Russians tend to drain their glasses - "down in one" - and so do many Kyrgyz but a lot of Kyrgyz only drink half the glass.

Photographs – and cameras : photographs are prized possessions. Not everyone has a camera and interest may be shown – especially if you have a dgital or ‘Polaroid’ (instant camera). Photographs make excellent presents.

Pointing : (for example in giving directions), should be done with either the index finger or with the open palm.

Prices : in shops the prices are fixed – but in bazaars a certain amount of bargaining may be expected. Don’t expect, however, to knock a lot of the price, however, and renenber that the sums involved are usually quite small.

Respectful terms of address : older men are addressed with the honorific title “baike”, and older women with “eje”

Shoes : when entering private homes it is usual to remove shoes.

Smoking : the Kyrgyz – like most Asian peoples – do smoke. Kyrgyzstan was a major producer of aromatic tobacco and there are some local manufacturers. In addition herbs are sometimes smoked – but although you may well see Marijuana plants growing wild – don’t be tempted … it is illegal and can have serious consequences.

Spitting : the situation in Kyrgyzstan is not as bad as in some other countries – but don’t be too surprised if you see people – even those who look like respectably dressed businessmen – spit in the street.

Staring : Strangers, everywhere, attract attention – and that is true in Kyrgyzstan as well, especially in the rural regions where foreigners are not frequently encountered - although it is not as marked as, say, in China. Although it may be unnerving and you should “keep your wits about you” – it usually simply reflects a natural curiosity.

Time – and timekeeping : The Kyrgyz were originally nomads and this seems to have inculcated into their culture a totally different sense of time than in the west – which is much much more relaxed. It can be one of the attractions – but it can also be very frustrating. In Russian there is a phrase (chas) which can me can mean now, within an hour, in an hour’s time – or simply wait. This often means that things are ready at the agreed time – and schedules should not be too tight or demanding. Travelling times can also be longer than originally thought. Do not think that a journey of 300 kilometers will take 3 hours as in many Wester countries. Apart from anything else, many of the roads are through mountainous regions and traveling can be slower than on good roads.

Tipping and Gifts : The Kyrgyz were nomads and are very hospitable and tipping is not common – although is always welcome in restaurants etc., where Western tourists are more frequently encountered. As part of this culture, however, it was usual for visitors to leave something behind as a gift and, for example at a homestay, a small gift – something small from home : photogaphs, postcards, a pen – are much appreciated and will be prized. If you are a guest at someone’s home for a meal you should take something small (e.g. fruit, something to drink, some chocolate) with you as a gift.

Toilets : Public toilets are “few and far between” … and in many cases, especially outside the cities. will be of the “squat” variety. Even these come in different forms … some may simply be a hole in the ground. Almost all will smell. Even where you find pedestal toilets – don’t be too surprised about the conditions – e.g. if there is no toilet seat.

Travelling in cars : usually women and children travel in the back seat – not in the front – even if there is no-one else in the car.

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